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| Accountability without Western Democracy |
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The Messenger's Quest for Authority
The Prophet Muhammad being 'an authority' was not an issue of contention as far as the Muslims were concerned. The Messenger however was very clear from the outset of his mission that he had to be 'in authority' i.e. in political authority to be effective with his mission of implementing Islam as an ideology. It is interesting to observe the targeted nature of his call, from the early days, at the then existing political authority. Prophet Muhammad recited verses of the Qur'an that publicly challenged the political authority of the Quraysh, the leading tribe of Arabia in which the Prophet was born. [19] This could be understood as undermining the existing political authority in an attempt to create a new axis of authority by changing the public opinion.The physical torture, boycott and various other forms of torment the Muslims suffered in Mecca (Makkah) could be seen as an indication of the effectiveness of the Prophet's campaign to undermine the authority of the ruling elite, as the leaders of the Quraysh sanctioned all these aggressions.The Prophet was born and brought up in Makkah. He spent the first 13 years of his Prophethood in Makkah and subsequently moved to Madinah as his message had a more receptive audience there.To many the Hijra (Migration) of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, was flight from oppression undertaken simply for self-preservation.The circumstances pre- and post-Hijra however indicate that there were political ambitions underlying this period, during which Prophet Muhammad was eagerly seeking political authority for his message. [20]
The Prophet was active in not only seeking the acceptance of Islam as a belief system amongst his people but also in seeking the means by which he could accede to political authority.The process of seeking the Nusrah (material support) is well-documented, especially during the last three years of Makkah when the Prophet secretly visited the heads of no less than 40 tribes with his Companions. Some offered to give support and authority but stipulated certain conditions in exchange.The Prophet however was seeking unconditional authority on his terms, which finally the 'Aws and the Khazraj tribes of Madinah gave to him, leading to the Hijra. [21]
The Messenger in Authority
The era ushered in by the arrival of the Prophet to Madinah, not as a fugitive, but as the head of the new Islamic state, brought into reality the aspirations of the Prophet and the Muslims. The next ten years until the death of the Prophet saw the expansion of the Islamic political authority. The Prophet Muhammad demonstrated his political acumen by leading the state through many battles and peaceful missions in order to extend his vision in the region. Despite having uncontested political authority, the Prophet's decade of state administration was not an iron-fisted approach, but rather consultation (Shura) of a variety of people of Madinah. On technical matters, he would consult those with expertise; he would consult the general public on issues that affected the wider society in which there were no particular restrictions from the Shari'ah. [22] This was in accordance with the instructions of God as mentioned in the Qur'an:
"And do consult them in the matter, and if you decide (on an action/ on an opinion) put your trust in Allah." (TMQ 3:159)
Before the battle of Uhud for instance, the Prophet demonstrated his commitment to consultation of the public by following the majority opinion and encamping outside Madinah, even though he thought it would better to mount a defence from inside Madinah.
Authority after the Messenger
It was well understood amongst the Muslim community (Ummah) of Madinah that it was their divinely ordained right to appoint whom they wished after the Prophet to look after their affairs according to Islam. Upon the death of the Prophet, despite being in a state of shock due to his loss, the Ummah of Madinah wasted no time in appointing a political leader to manage their affairs. The Prophet did not explicitly choose his successor leaving it up to the community to do so. Eventually this point of succession is however contentious and has lead to the Sunni/Shi'a divide. [23] The Muslims naturally differed in their view as to who was most suitable to become their leader and have political authority over them. Issues ranging from their piety, tribal background (including the family of the Prophet), political judgement, personality etc, were all considered in their assessment of suitability of a candidate. Obviously certain criteria took precedence over others, hence intense debate followed. [24] To the people however, only their popular consent could mandate someone as head of state.
Immediately after the death of the Prophet, a group of the Ummah known as the ahl-al hall wal aqd (people of influence/power) who represented the various people of the community, debated intensely in the court of the Banu Saa'idah whom to appoint as their leader.The Bay'ah (the pledge of allegiance) the only method to legitimately choose the Caliph - was given to Abu Bakr after much deliberation and he thus became the first of the Rashideen (Rightly-Guided) Caliphs. The Bay'ah is a contractual process and like all contracts it can be broken, if the ruler violates the contractual conditions the people stipulate this will warrant his dismissal from office. The Ummah appointed Abu Bakr as a successor to the political authority of the Prophet. His appointment was conditional upon the implementation of the Shari'ah according to the Qur'an and the Prophetic Sunnah and his own ijtihad (derivation of legislation from the primary sources of Islam). [25]
On his deathbed, the people of Madinah requested that Abu Bakr appoint his successor.They were happy with his leadership and indicated that they would be happy with his choice of successor.Abu Bakr initially declined to do this, saying that it was a matter for the people to choose his successor and not his right. After being pressed, he nominated Umar ibn Al-Khattab as his successor. After the death of Abu Bakr, Umar ibn Al-Khattab had to receive the Bay'ah from the Ummah, despite being nominated by his predecessor, as the nomination was itself not binding.This indicates that it was well understood at that time that it was the right of the Ummah to appoint someone into political authority and that the Bay'ah was the sole legitimate method for such an appointment.This procedural element continued with the third and fourth Rashideen Caliphs. [26]
The fact that most of the Companions were held in high esteem in the community at large did not absolve them of accountability to the Ummah. The Ummah understood political accountability as an integral part of the wider Islamic duty of 'al-amr bil ma'ruf wal nahy an al-munkar' (commanding the right and forbidding the wrong).Accountability was a part of the tenure of each of the Rashideen Caliphs and they responded to it positively.This was demonstrated by Caliph Umar's response to a man in the audience who took out his sword and told Umar that he would correct him with it if he (Umar) went astray in his office of power. Umar responded by saying:
"Praise be to Allah, there are men in the nation who would put me right if I go astray." [27]
After the Rashideen Caliphs, the Muslims saw the advent of the Umayyad Caliphate, whose founder was Mu'awiyah. The Umayyad Caliphate was characterised by the introduction of the alien concept (bid'ah) of inherited ruling into Islamic political culture and changed the Islamic State into something like a kingdom. This made the pre-requisite of Bay'ah for legitimacy of authority almost nominal and the practice became a formality in the eyes of most people. [28] They tried to treat their rule as if it was a divine right bestowed upon them, rather than the right of the Ummah to choose their rulers.This was in contrast to the earlier Caliphs who saw themselves as 'Caliph of the Messenger' meaning a successor to the Prophet only in his political role by the choice of the people. The erosion of this right of the Ummah to freely appoint the political authority did not necessarily mean that they neglected their duty to account their rulers.This is indicated by the Umayyads constant need to justify their practices according to the Prophetic Sunnah. [29]
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